CPA REPORT Essay

CPA Report The manager of a large organization has asked the CPA to provide information to outside CPAs examining a subsidiary that has been set up as a corporation. As a part of their review, the outside CPAs want to be provided with the several explanations. The CPAs want to know the methodology used to determine deferred taxes and the procedures for reporting accounting changes and error corrections. The CPAs also want to know the rationale behind establishing the subsidiary as a corporation. Methodology Used to Determine Deferred Taxes The methodology used to determine deferred taxes deals with the basic principles of accounting for income taxes. According to FASB (2013), â€Å"The following basic principles are applied in accounting for income taxes: A current of deferred tax liability or asset is recognized for the current or deferred tax consequences of all events that have been recognized in the financial statements The current of deferred tax consequences of an event are measured by applying the provisions of enacted tax laws to determine the amount of taxes payable or refundable currently or in future years The tax consequences of earning income or incurring losses or expenses in future years or the future enactment of a change in tax laws or rates are not anticipated for purposes of recognition and measurement of a deferred tax liability or asset† (Summary of Statement No. 96). Procedures for Reporting Accounting Changes and Error Corrections SFAS 154 addresses procedures for reporting accounting changes and error corrections. This statement 154 calls for retrospective application for voluntary changes in accounting principles. Through retrospective application, a change in accounting principle is treated by restating comparative financial statements to reflect the new method as though it had  been applied all along. Thus, the company should show any cumulative effect as a retrospective application and an adjustment to the opening retained earnings balance. SFAS also requires retrospective application to be presented with respect to direct effects and related income tax effects of a change in principle. Indirect effects should be reflected in the period of the accounting change (FASB, 2013). Corrections of errors from prior periods are recorded as adjustments to the beginning balance of retained earnings in the current period. The nature of the error should be disclosed as well as the effect on the current and prior periods presented. If an error affects the current or prior periods presented or is expected to affect subsequent periods, the entity must disclose that comparative information has been restated, the effect of the correction by line-item and per-share amounts for all periods presented, and the amount of the adjustment to opening retained earnings (FASB, 2013). Rationale behind Establishing the Subsidiary as a Corporation There several reasons behind establishing a subsidiary as a corporation. One reason is that a corporation maintains a capital stock account, additional paid-in capital accounts, and a retained earnings account. â€Å"Net income or loss becomes part of retained earnings, and dividends are always paid equally to all shareholders of a particular class of stock† (Bline, Fischer, & Skekel, 2004, Chapter 7). Corporations are also able to reacquire some of its own equity interest in the form of treasury stock. Other advantages of establishing a subsidiary as a corporation are Limited Liability. When it comes to taking responsibility for business debts and actions of a corporation, shareholders’ personal assets are protected. Shareholders can generally only be held accountable for their investment in stock of the company. Ability to Generate Capital. Corporations have an advantage when it comes to raising capital for their business – the ability to raise funds through the sale of stock. Corporate Tax Treatment. Corporations file taxes separately from their owners. Owners of a corporation only pay taxes on corporate profits paid to them in the form of salaries, bonuses, and dividends, but any additional profits are awarded a corporate tax rate, which is usually lower than a personal income tax rate.  Attractive to Potential Employees. Corporations are generally able to attract and hire high-quality and motivated employees because they offer competitive benefits and the potential for partial ownership through stock options (U.S. Small Business Administration, 2013). MEMORANDUM TO: Manager FROM: CPA DATE: September 30, 2013 SUBJECT: Professional responsibilities as a CPA In response to the request for more information, the following is a summary of the professional responsibilities of a CPA. This memo will also cover the differences between a review and an audit. CPAs perform an essential role in society, and they are responsible to all those who use their professional services. CPAs have a continuing responsibility to improve the art of accounting, maintain the public’s confidence, and carry out the profession’s special responsibilities for self-governance (The CPA Journal, 2004). CPAs must adhere to the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct, which sets forth certain standards of professional conduct. AICPA members are bound by the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct. Rule 201 requires that members provide professional services with competency (AICPA, 2013). According to AICPA (2013), â€Å"In the delivery of personal financial planning services, a member shall adhere to the following Principles of Professional Conduct. ET Section 52 – Article I – Responsibilities In carrying out their responsibilities as professionals, members should exercise sensitive professional and moral judgments in all their activities. Section ET 53 – Article II – The Public Interest Members should accept the obligation to act in a way that will serve the public interest, honor the public trust and demonstrate commitment to professionalism. Section ET 54 – Article III – Integrity To maintain and broaden public confidence, members should perform all professional responsibilities with the highest sense of integrity. Section ET 55 – Article IV – Objectivity and Independence A member should maintain objectivity and be free of conflicts of interest in discharging professional responsibilities. A member in public practice should be independent in fact and appearance when providing auditing and other attestation services. Section ET 56 – Article V – Due Care A member should observe the profession’s technical and ethical standards, strive continually to improve competence and the quality of services, and discharge professional responsibility to the best of the member’s ability† (Professional Responsibilities). Review The purpose of a review is to provide limited assurance that financial statements do not have any known errors or departures from the accounting rules found in GAAP. There is usually no testing of information in the financial statements beyond inquiry and analytical review. The CPA will not obtain an understanding of the internal control system or address how the organization is addressing the risk of fraud in the financial statements (Ulvog, 2006). A review involves the CPA performing procedures that will provide a reasonable basis for obtaining limited assurance that there are no material modifications that should be made to the financial statements for them to be in conformity with the applicable financial reporting framework. A review does not contemplate obtaining an understanding of the entity’s internal control; assessing fraud risk; testing accounting records; or other  procedures ordinarily performed in an audit (Barfield, Murphy, Shank & Smith LLC, 2013). Audit The purpose of an audit is to provide reasonable assurance that financial statements are fairly presented in accordance with GAAP. In an audit, the CPA will gain an understanding of internal controls, evaluate the risk of major fraud, test the places where there is a significant risk of major fraud, and perform testing where necessary for the significant components of the financial statements (Ulvog, 2006). The auditor is required to corroborate the amounts and disclosures included in the financial statements by obtaining audit evidence through inquiry, physical inspection, observation, third-party confirmations, examination, analytical procedures, and other procedures (Barfield, Murphy, Shank & Smith LLC, 2013). An audit provides more assurance to a reader of the financial statements than a review. References AICPA. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.aicpa.org/INTERESTAREAS/PERSONALFINANCIALPLANNING/RESOURCES/PRACTICECENTER/PROFESSIONALRESPONSIBILITIES/Pages/ProfessionalResponsibilities.aspx Barfield, Murphy, Shank & Smith LLC. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.bmss.com/news-story.php?cn=172 Bline, D., Fischer, M., & Skekel, T. (2004). Advanced Accounting. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database FASB. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.fasb.org/summary/stsum96.shtml The CPA Journal. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2004/104/text/p80.htm Ulvog, J.L. (2006). Ulvog CPA. Retrieved from http://ulvogcpa.com/Audit_or_Review.html U.S. Small Business Administration. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.sba.gov/content/corporation

Business Psychology Essay

In this era of globalization, every organization must design its own strategy in terms of running its business at excellent level to survive and stay in competition. Trigger factors of higher demands that addressed to organizations are; emergence of free market which means that competitors are not only from the local market but also come from organizations all over the world, technological advances that developed rapidly over time also has role in higher demands that has been exposed to organizations in determining that everyone inside the organization must be compatible with the rapid development of technological advances at their workplace. Intense competition environment as already mentioned above certainly lead to tendencies for organizations in emerging innovations, creativities, enhancement of added value, service excellences, competitive prices and acceleration of process business plot as an objective to be â€Å"the winner† in competing with other organizations. A paradigm shifting in the design of the organizational strategies is necessary to be developed by organizations in order to survive in spite of the free market enforcement. One of the strategies that can be applied is building an effective team in the organization, the transformation in working method from individual to team work as the main focus must bring psychological effects for every individual in the organization. Every member in the organization is forced to be part of their team, regardless to their preference to work as individual or as a team. This phenomenon also brings the â€Å"domino effect†; each member in the organization will be evaluated not only for their field competencies related to their job performance, but also personal competencies related to perform effectively as a team member (team work competencies) will be evaluated by the organization. In the realization  of forming an effective team, more than one strategy related to competencies in team building, which are parts of the business psychology area, must be combined in a synchronous way. Business psychology can be use as a source in designing and implementing an organizational strategy, especially for the accentuation in understanding individual behavior and self improvement basis when they are put and work together in a team. There some business psychology focuses that can be used in designing a strategy which at the end also can be used as references in building personal competencies needed in order to perform as an effective team. These are the beneficial focuses: 1. Perception and personal reality Every individual has cognitive limitation in responding to information that they received, as a result of that phenomenon, they are forced to pick information selectively regarding to which received information associated as valuable and which is invaluable, which data that will be taken to the next level of information process. Related to selectivity process, individual tend to use heuristic process, an information processing which characterized by incomplete usage of given data, only based on general issues and experiences, and all those information processed quickly. This information processing form has potential in bringing biases, misunderstanding, and inaccurate result in processing information. Based on the implementation of information processing above, in interacting with other individual, stereotypes and expectations emerged. Stereotyping is a judgment processing of someone that made only based on perceptions to the group where they can be categorized. Expectations from each individual not always positively responded by the other party where they are interacting with each other. Expectations also correlate with communication styles that will be used in interactions. 2. Team ship In building an effective team, many approaches must be used and collaborated in a synchronous way. Defining roles in each team member is an important aspect for balancing the roles of team members in order to optimize the team’s outcomes and coherence. One of the models that can be used in describing team roles in details is â€Å"team roles model† by Belbin : An effective team, in the process basis is characterized by these indication processes; active listening, sharing leadership, taking turn-not interrupting, positive reframing, rescuing eac other’s views, spontaneous and open praise and elaboration of ongoing ideas. In terms of their task performance, an effective team is characterized by these indication processes; analyzing, focus on results, reflecting, open rejection-goal oriented, open rejection-based on data, seeking opinion, seeking clarification and closure. There are some important key behavior in an effective team, such as: open communication, mutual respect, shared output responsibility, agreement through consensus, active disagreement, clear individual responsibilities and roles, subordinate own goals to group objectives, engender high team morale, receptive to new ideas and change, and constructive and supported feedback. There are two applicable models that can be useful in order to design the strategy for establishing an effective team, and they are: Jungian model and Tjosvold model. a. Jungian Model b. The Ideal Team System by Tjosvold Sharing organizational expectations, business strategies and visions, core  values, organizational cultures and organizational objectives, can be defined as envisioning. Showing interest about team member’s visions, task clearances, valuing intercultural differences, and transferring the idea of the team ship’s paradigm importance are efforts in uniting the team. Bringing out loyalties, responsibilities, knowing potential of team members and assigning them based on that, and motivate them when they need motivation are characteristics in the empowering step. After being empowered, exploration in discovering problems and focusing on finding solutions can be established, diversities can be managed in finding the best solution, and all that will raise the team’s awareness to the importance of learning over time to have the upper hand in the market competition. After the best solution is reached, reflecting what the team has been through at every step of the cycle above can be very important as the source of any plan or step that needs to be revised on the next period in order to perform as an effective team. 3. Conflict resolution There are some causes of conflicts that usually appear in organizations: competition, scarcity of resources, interdependence/dependency, conflict in objectives and tasks, differences of opinion and of influence, differences in status, cultural differences, change, misperception, miscommunication, different ways of seeing things, personal preferences, pace of response, range of response and form of response, individual differences and emotional defenses. Traditionally, from all causes of conflicts that mentioned above, individual differences and emotional defenses are the main issues in organizations. In dealing with conflicts, there are three natural reactions that are usually expected from the individuals involved: striking back (leads to escalation, potentially damaging the relationship), giving in (usually results in poor outcome, can be seen as rewarding bad behavior), and breaking off (sometimes can be beneficial, often very costly, hasty and regretted). Regarding to conflict resolution, application of negotiation competencies can be very useful. There are five stages in negotiation process; orientation, position taking, search for solutions, crisis/deadlock, settlement and finalization. It is important to each team member to identify their position in those stages that are related in optimizing conflict resolution process. By knowing and sharing their each position, they can build the same perceptions in finding the best conflict resolution scheme. Principled approach is a combined technique in negotiation from soft and hard style of positional bargaining. In this approach, participants are problem solvers, the goal is a wise outcome reached amicably and efficiently, people and the problem must be separated, must be soft on the people and hard on the problem, independent of trust is proceed, the focus is on interests not the positions, interests are being explored, having a bottom line is avoided, options for mutual gain are invented, multiple options are developed, the use of objective criteria is insisted, a result is reached based on standards independent of will, there is tendency to be open to reasons and yield to principle, not pressure. Conflicts can lead to project delays, missed market opportunities, confused communication, inconsistent information, teams fail and difficult to retain good staff. Considering the effects of unresolved conflict, there are three category : first order effects (quantifiable) can be counted by employee replacement cost, including termination costs and recruitment, second order effects (harder to quantify) which can be observed by increased supervision or management activities , and third order effect (impossible to quantify) when its already revealed in passive aggressive behaviors. Look more:  problem focused coping essay There are two types of conflict; task focused, which is characterized by differences of views and opinions, based on facts and reasoning, and related to intellectual matters. The other type is relationship focused conflict, characterized by anchored in personal differences, influenced by history/assumptions, and related to feelings and emotions. There is a model by Thomas Kilmann which explained deliberately about correlation between  assertiveness and cooperativeness in dealing with conflict. 4. Decision making There are two types of decision making process that people tend to implement, they are: width (diverging) and depth (converging). Diverging type is characterized by some points; seeking options/strategies, works with multiple perspectives, requires more options, considering new ideas, combining options/lateral ideas, and creative suggestions. On the other hand, converging type is characterized by: seeking consensus, seeking clarification, seeking structure, review based on new information, analytical, making inferences, assess consequences based on data, strong defense of viewpoint, clear decisions and outcomes. The usage of both types can be based on the situation that the decision making processes is taking place in the organization. Combination of width and depth are expected and can be the best option in decision making process.

Discussion 8 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion 8 - Assignment Example This can be accomplished through a variety of incentives as well as implementing new requirements for the landscaping of any new housing development. The outright legislation of what type of plants that an individual is allowed to plant in their own yard may seem a bit draconian, especially to those that have lived in the LA area for many years. As such, a good remedy to this would be to require that any new housing developments and or landscaping projects must adhere to some minimum drought hardy requirements. Simply having a green lawn is not reason for a fine; however, if water records can substantiate that the individual is wastefully using public resources solely for beautification purposes, that individual should be forced to pay a penalty for this luxury because the aforementioned individual is taking the resources of the entire public. It is a part of the American societal norm. We are constantly shown perfect, green, beautifully manicured lawns in movies, television, advertisements, and other forms of marketing. We are told that this is what we should all ascribe to and in so doing we will be able to further delineate ourselves from the rest of the neighborhood as the person who has the best grass – as if that really matters. In the first article that was assigned, it stated that the lawn business was a several hundred billion dollar a year money making machine; as such, the firms that benefit from this infusion of money will continue to lobby and advertise and market this form of â€Å"happiness† to an unwitting public. It depends on how severe the drought is or if the water system has reached or is near reaching absolute capacity. Going so far at this juncture as tearing out non-native plants would be a bit severe especially since such a broad ranging edict would have many negative effects on the local environment including

White Privilege and the Myth of Meritocracy-Diversity in Organizations Essay

White Privilege and the Myth of Meritocracy-Diversity in Organizations - Essay Example The discussion is also made in the additional contexts of the questions that are required to be answered relating to white privileges that have relevance with regard to organizational diversity; white privileges from the vantage point of non-white minority groups; how discrimination fosters white privileges and whites’ perception of their own capabilities and merits; the use of the terms qualified minorities, qualified whites, and qualified women; gender-based privileges; the relationship between wealth and privileges (Bell, 2011; pp. 223-256; McIntosh, 1990; McIntosh, 2009; McNamee and Miller, 2004; Unz, 2012). Discussion Whites here refer to the ethnic groups that fall under the umbrella of non-Hispanic white and have roots in Europe, or else are from North Africa or the Middle East. They include those who self-report being white, or else report themselves to be one or other of the following: Arab, Irish, Polish, Lebanese, Italian, German, or from the Near East. This is also the definition espoused by the US Census Bureau, and forms the basis of the definition for the paper (Bell, 2011, p. 225). By white privileges is meant those privileges that accrue to Whites in America by virtue of the social conventions that work on either positively discriminating whites based on their color to confer special work, consumption, and other social privileges, or to negatively discriminate against non-whites to effectively put whites in positions of economic, social and political power, and in other relevant aspects of social and cultural life in the country. The myth of meritocracy, meanwhile, posits that whites earned their privileges and positions of dominance and power, and that conversely other minority groups effectively have not earned power and therefore are unable to rise into similar positions as whites. The myth of meritocracy also exists as divisions in â€Å"earned† power and privileges along gender lines, with white women being in inferior positi ons at work for instance due to white males having earned their positions through the merits of their own work and capabilities. While there are parties that assert that reverse discrimination exist, and documented in the courts, the reality is that white privilege persists as a social force acting in ways that reinforce those privileges at the expense of women and minorities, even as whites themselves in significant numbers have historically worked for more egalitarian social arrangements among races, viewing diversity in organizations as sources of strength and advantage that lift all in turn (Bell, 2011; pp. 223-256). Answering the first question, McIntosh presents many of the subtle ways by which white privilege presents itself in daily life, and it is easy to imagine that in the context of organizational diversity, many of those presentations are relevant, especially with regard to not being racially profiled for a host of activities including participating in race-based discus sions and in discussions on promotions, and with regard to the impact of subtle segregation rules in the choice of housing for employees that may work against drives by organizations to foster greater racial diversity in its employee pools. In promotions discussions, if majority of upper management is white too, then ingrained social forces operating within an organization would work against greater ethnic diversity in the management ranks too, to cite another example (McIntosh, 2009; McIntosh, 1990). To answer question two, If I were a member of a minority ethnic group, the white privileges relating to natural social tendencies to promote and enhance the power of whites over

Global and Substantive Revision Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global and Substantive Revision - Coursework Example The analysis directed in the paper initially gives a statistical snapshot of ration within the American population affected by obesity. Additionally, the theoretical aspects towards the food consumption trends are listed showcasing the change in food tendency since the year 1990. This occurrence is progressively documented towards a dedicated and oriented future population that exercises healthy eating habits. The key argument in the paper although lacks a broad and exemplified demonstration of how the proposed approaches for solving the unhealthy eating habits would improve and promote healthy eating trends. For example, the development of healthy foods via the use of technology ought to have been thoroughly emphasized on through the use of instances like food processing plants or industries. The sources and evidence material used in this paper are appropriately referred to within the text of the document. The sources effectively fulfill and facilitate the conveyance of information to the reader through aiding them to achieve a better understanding of the opinion highlighted in the paper. The introduction described requires a clear and well defined subjective statement with original text expounding on the main topic of the paper. The information in the paper is directed towards the general population with the main aim of offering positive advice to the emergent trends and the suitable or healthy foods to consume as an individual. The paper categorically addresses the trends in human food consumption form the past to the present backed up with duly accredited sources that aid in further illustration of the prevailing eating trends. The organization, arrangement and general formatting of the information require review in order to offer a more presentable, informative and good looking paper. Certain section so of  the paper requires reconsideration in order to provide feasible and neat content that a reader would find interesting.  

Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity - Essay Example In my essay, I am going to do a comparison and contrast essay which is based on evangelical and pentecostal Christianity and how these are mainly focused in a specific region. In dealing with evangelical and pentecostal Christianity, it is important to examine their similarities especially where they come together in their ideologies. They come together especially in their universality of their teachings and the timelessness ( Wolffe, 2002). They tend to agree with each other in their teachings and philosophies which are inherently tied to each other and are especially predominant when they are dealing with conflict or tension situations where they actually see eye to eye. It is also important to take into account that because we are dealing with these religions, I am using the Wolffe's perspective on a lot of these issues. He suggests that it is predominantly in the developing world that Evangelism and Pentecostal Christianity have their strongest foothold with particular emphasis being placed on Latin America (2002). In examining the criteria for their comparison, it is noteworthy to mention that Pentecostal religion and Evangelism have similarities in that they are especially geared towards migrants and people from a similar ethnic background-a sort of common background that brings about ethnic groups with similar ideologies together (Wolffe, 2002). Another obvious identifying feature of Pentecostal and Evangelicals is that they both believe that the Bible is divinely inspired and believe that the Holy Spirit is involved in the evangelical process. Here we see this to be true especially in the Western world with the rise of evangelicals who speak under the authority of the Holy Spirit and therefore have the ability to prophesy and speak in tongues (Wolffe, 2002). Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity have been a trend of the late centuries and are actually a breakaway from Protestanism which split from Catholicism in the 16th century. But it was not until the 18th century, that we see visibly the Evangelical movement that rose from the Protestant reformation (Wolffe,2002). Since they are ethnically geared so to speak towards people from similar ethnic backgrounds, they formed the backbone for a lot of the revivals of the movement in regions such as Northern Ireland where "it gained from being an important focus for Protestant identity in the face of ongoing struggles over the constitutional status of the province (Wolffe, 2002, p.20)." There was in Ireland, considerable turmoil and conflict between the Catholics and the Protestants and due to their common interests and struggles, the Evangelicals formed a common bond to come together. Whereas by contrast where Pentecostal and Evangelical Christianity differed, was in "its teachings of the need for Christians to be baptized in the Holy Spirit, as a second intense spiritual experience subsequent to conversion. Pentecostalism was particularly successful among the black and Hispanic communities in the USA, and from the 1950s onwards gained significant ground in the UK as a result of West Indian immigration (Wolffe, 2002,p.21)." Again we see the trend where the minorities form the backbone for the rise of the Evangelical and Pentecostal movement in the Americas and the United Kingdom. Although our focus in this essay, will be the rise in these two movements, I will focus more on the developments in the United kingdom, the USA, and Latin America. The former two countries are more industrialized but the last Latin America is more on the less advantageous side economically speaking. In the United Kingdom, for instance, we see statistically speaking an increase in numbers among the Pentecostal and Evangelical Christians. This is denoted by the rising numbers who are church attendants. The famous evangelist Billy Graham from the United States on making his visit to the United Kingdom drew very large audiences (Wolffe, 2002). In the early

Real Estate Investment Analysis (data provided) Case Study

Real Estate Investment Analysis (data provided) - Case Study Example Also the rate at of absorption is very high. Meaning if a new investor comes into the market, more tenants are likely to shift to the new property. Finally, most of the occupants are employed, thus paying rent won’t be an issue. Discounted cash flow (DCF) is used in valuing projects, assets or investments by taking into account the time value of money. The concept of time value for money states that a shilling today is worth than a shilling tomorrow. As a result investors would rather get cash now rather than wait. The market is dynamic and factors such as inflation are unpredictable. The appropriate rate of discounting is known. This is not the case as the rate can be determined using methods such as Capital asset pricing model (CAPM) and the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). Secondly, the cash flow forecast was created based on the assumptions made. In the cash flow, projected income is subtracted from expenditure and taxes. The cash flow only considers cash. Depreciation and interest expense is non-cash item thus excluded from the cash flow. Income tax is charged against the taxable income. Therefore, in computing income tax, depreciation and interest were subtracted from the NOI to get the taxable income. Interest is computed using the amortization schedule as 8% on the beginning balance of loan in each year. NPV is an appraisal method that calculates returns on investments by discounting future cash flows and deducting them from the initial cost of the investment (Brigham & Houston 2009, p 338). It is a modern method in capital budgeting and it takes into account the time value for money. It also uses cash flows and not profits in assessing the viability of an investment. Cash flows are forecasted first, initial cost of investment determined and a required rate of return is given. The rate of return is the return that investors expect from their investments. The initial capital outlay is based on the value of assets. The value is 1.5M. This

Assignment 2 MJ Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

2 MJ - Assignment Example The scene then fast forwards to the present day where the first born son named Jamal is older and his son is about to get married and the second born son had fled to America to escape the injustices that were happening in his country. The second born son, Bassam goes back to Abuddin with his American family for the wedding. The president dies during the wedding ceremony and Jamal inherits the presidency. The country is ruled through a lot of fear as the ruling family is known to persecute anyone who threatens to oppose their rule. The royal family lives a lavish lifestyle and has servants at their beck and call. However, the time is when most parts of the world were calling out for the end of dictatorial rule and thus the royal family was under a lot of pressure from a rebel group to hold an election. Bassam, being more accepting of the democratic ways, convinces his brother to go through an election. Jamal is definately authoritative and does whatever he wants to satisfy himself. He does not care much about anyone else or what anyone would say. He does things that only benefit him; satisfy his needs, and his hold onto power. His first action shown in the series is him forcing himself on one of his subject’s wife as the husband waits outside and he does not care about the husband’s feelings and neither those of the children of the woman who are waiting outside. His major aim is to satisfy himself regardless of who gets hurt. Jamal justifies his actions by claiming that his wife had left him and that his subjects are there to please him and do as he wishes whenever he wants. He extends his cruelty to innocent people simply because he has the authority and capacity to do as he wishes and no one is bold enough to face him. Jamal had been brought by his father and taught to be ruthless to people who did not agree with him. From his childhood, he had been forced to go everywhere with his father and even

Constitutional and Administrative Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Constitutional and Administrative Law - Essay Example An example is the legislation in the UK popularly known as the Civil Partnership Act of 2005 to protect the minority gay community from discrimination (Spilsbury, 2008). Under this act, it is stipulated that couples of the same sex have the same rights and privileges as those of heterosexual couples with regard to child adoption as well as other family rights and therefore they can choose to acquire children provided legal processes are followed (Spilsbury, 2008). This is essential especially due to the fact that every person desires to have children whom they can share their love and wealth with. As it is known, it is biologically impossible for persons of the same sex to produce children of their own and since these marriages are recognized by law, the same law should not deny them of their rights. In the case of Martin and Neil, it is important to note that this act was active during the time when they adopted their child and as such, they acted within the law. It is also necessary to note that the act of 2005 cannot be amended without a majority vote of 75% of the House of Commons, and a similar vote in the House of Lords. It is therefore unfair , based on this, for the two houses to revoke the act in the year 2010 by a simple majority of 51% and 52% without considering the social implications it would have on the affected families who may have adopted children within the two years prior to the new act. However, it is important for Martin and Neil to understand that the UK parliament is the supreme organ in the land with legislative powers that can not be challenged by any other political or judicial organ (Young, 2008). Having this supremacy means that it can decide to make new laws or amend the existing ones regarding any issue which may come to its attention and neither the courts nor any other group or individual can override the legislation once it

White Privilege - White people Essay Example for Free

White Privilege White people Essay A variety of factors within our society prevent equal opportunity. We still live in a racialized society where the color of our skin often determines how we are treated. Many white people do not recognize, or want to recognize that race still significantly impacts lives. Many white people are taught growing up not to think as racial beings, and this may contribute to many denying the privileges that go along with being white. Historically, the goal for equality and opportunity for everyone has not always existed and this has caused a heavy influence on society today. My research focuses on and investigates knowledge and perception on the importance of race, and how denial affects us all. White privilege is a social relation that benefits white persons over non-white persons. A said advantage enjoyed by persons of a socially privileged class based on the color of their skin. A racial category, which involves European-Americans and the â€Å"invisible norm† (IAW. 350) against other racial categories. It’s important to understand white privilege and how it affects society. A lack of understanding and recognition of unearned privilege may lead us to lack a desire to create a diverse atmosphere, and ways we can be more aware. White privilege may affect how we interact with each other and how those who do not share such advantages are affected. Some question, if white privilege still exists, and if it’s that big of a deal. And, if so, how can we work on reducing these effects? The idea of white privilege is said to divide whites and blacks into their own economic categories. While white people are given opportunities and benefits, dark colored skin people may be at a disadvantage to these opportunities and benefits. â€Å"Many analysis of white privilege interpret whiteness as an intangible economic good† ( Black Reconstruction in America: W. E. B. Du Bois. ). White privilege is the original form of racism that has existed throughout much of American history. Race has been used to define cultural categories of ‘white’ and ‘non-white’ human beings. Whites were defined as being the superior species and blacks were considered inferior and incapable of advancing themselves. The history of this way of thinking and racism go back hundreds of years and is the foundation of white privilege. Institutions gave preferential treatment to people whose ancestors came from Europe compared to people whose ancestors came from Asia and Africa. The white class was granted political and economic rights that people of color were denied. These past laws and the idea of race is what have directly contributed to our social inequalities, but do social inequalities currently exist? Many people today will contest that white privilege does in fact still exist. Most often, the person contesting is a white person being accused of enjoying social privilege simply because they are white. White privilege is a term that universally describes and views all white people as being granted with these advantages, but the majority of white people have to work hard to get to the position they desire. These positions aren’t reserved based on the color of our skin. We aren’t born with the right for a free ride, and we earn our way up just as any other person has to. This seems to be accurate and may give a quality argument to white privilege. Although, for white people born with greater resources it may be hard to see, and may not feel privileged or more powerful than others. Growing up comfortable and privileged may just be a way of life that we take for granted, unconsciously knowing we do. â€Å"Many people are unaware of their preferences for lighter skin† (The Persistent Problem of Racism: Skin tone, Status and Inequality. 238). Those who do enjoy these white privileges, it’s just normal. However; white privilege does vary depending on many factors. This may include sex, age, socioeconomic status and others. White skin may in fact be the favored group in our society. Statistics have shown white men and women hold more power positions than black men and women. We may be unaware that being white matters, but we still participate, intentionally or not. In her essay Seeing and Making Culture, Hooks, describes what it is like growing up poor. She says, â€Å"Many middle class black folks have no money because they regularly distribute their earnings among a larger kinship group where folks are poor and destitute† (IAW. 433). As I read this essay I noticed the terms ‘black’ and ‘white’ were used many times to describe a person. Also, it was as if she was implying most black people are poor and white people portray an economic class privilege image. She does acknowledge white poor people, but seems to focus on being black and poor. She explains what college was like as a young black girl, and says, â€Å"Students in the dormitory were quick to assume that anything missing had been taken by the black and Filipina women who worked there† (IAW. 433). The essays claim is the way we see and judge poor people, but it makes an attempt to acknowledge disadvantaged poor black people as well. This is an example of the way humans group other humans, stereotyping by race. As a white person we may feel being viewed as white and privileged people will automatically think we are spoiled jerks. The creation of our system in which race codes superiority over others has been bestowed upon us. Even though it’s confusing it’s purposeful American history. We must remind ourselves this system is not based on each individual white persons intentions to continue claiming that white privilege is rightly ours. Regardless of our personal intent the effects are the same. Our society, throughout history, sees white as normal and all other races as different from normal. Today, white people’s privileges may be something we cannot not get. For example, if I buy a box of band aids that say flesh color, I know it means the color of my white skin. White people have been educated to understand our culture and our race as being the social norm. Social norm is defined as beliefs within a society of appropriate behavioral expectations. An example of behavioral expectations of our white society is a young white boy reading a book as the social norm, but a young black boy reading a book is ‘acting white’. The white boy seemingly normal but the black boy performing a ‘white persons’ behavior. Comedian Chris Rock often talks of white privilege, and uses the issue in his stand-up routines almost always. At one point he says to an audience of many white people, â€Å"None of ya would change places with me! And I’m rich! That’s how good it is to be white! It’s not like slavery ended and then everything has been amazing† (Chris Rock. About America). Even in an interview about life as a comedian he says, â€Å"Black people have first- hand knowledge on racism† (Chris Rock. Hilarious Interview). Racism is so deeply rooted in our society. Is it even possible for people of any skin color to just look at people as humans? It is assumed, no matter our skin color, we gravitate to people who look like ourselves. This includes personality, religion, morals as well as features. We are naturally attracted and comfortable with people who resemble ourselves. This seems like a normal behavior. It doesn’t necessarily mean we dislike other races. Regardless of skin color, people who are white/black/brown, all discriminate against other races and cultures. Most all humans are guilty of making judgments against another before knowing or learning anything about the person. This applies to people of all groups and of any color for many different reasons. It is an unconscious act, and a part of our human nature. White privilege is an unwilling and non-owned racism that has been ingrained into our mindset throughout history. Racism comes from both sides. People of all colors are continuing these behaviors and racism continues to be a modern day battle. Racism is affecting us all. If white privilege is inequality among races it is creating dysfunctional relationships between races. Many black people feel white people have an obligated duty to clean up the racist messes they have created throughout history. People with dark skin have negative feelings toward people with light skin for slavery and civil rights. How is this fair? Most people dislike racism, and this includes white people. Our society has created a practice of stereotyping into categories by skin color. Many white people feel targeted for their white privilege. Are we in denial white privilege still exists, or is it a misunderstanding? It has been said an advantage of white privilege is white people having more wealth that is being passed from generation to generation. We benefit from this financial assistance giving white people a better starting point in life. Although, in my experience, my family and ancestors have worked hard for their money and some of my family living in poverty. I have not benefited from any wealth being passed down to me. Throughout history white people have worked hard and in return they claim the land and wealth. Is white privilege today being confused for cultural differences, or are we taught not to recognize it? â€Å"Many white Americans have lived under the assumption that if they worked hard, they would be rewarded. Now more white Americans are sharing unemployment lines with â€Å"those people† – black and brown† (Tim Wise. White Like Me. ). People of color say they worry about being discriminated against for the color of their skin. They feel disadvantaged when seeking housing, employment or simply shopping in stores. They feel they have worked just as hard as white people, but they still don’t make it to their level of success. Also saying having light skin is one less worry white people have, and People who are poor and white, still have the benefit of ‘looking white’ and the advantages that come along with having white skin. White people have even claimed the identity of who we are as Americans. It seems history continues to echo, making ‘white’ the default race in America. There are Asian Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans and Americans, and we automatically assume American is a Caucasian person, without adding something extra to the name. It seems white dominates the American population. A white American is considered to be the model race. It has been consistent that white is the national identity. White people are the majority in most regions. We have stayed confined in a world that doesn’t challenge this distribution of power and this allows continued inequality and injustice in the United States. Shouldn’t we understand there’s only one race, the human race? As humans we are different. We have different hair color, eye color, personality and skin color. â€Å"The accident of where one is born is just that, an accident† (IAW. 669). Is the idea of different races ignorant thinking, I mean we can all reproduce with one another! My first day of high school I was surprised when I stepped out of my mother’s car and looked around to see the majority of students were black or brown. I have to admit I was a bit intimidated. I was worried I may not fit in. This high school was very multicultural. Still today, when I tell people where I went to high school they may make a racist joke, or say, â€Å"oh the gangster school†. I get irritated, because it’s a typical stereotype. My experience was ok. I had friends with brown, black and white skin. We all came from different backgrounds, but we were all very close friends, and most of us are still today. Some of my dark skinned friends would joke around and call me white devil or white girl. It was ok and considered normal for the dark skinned kids to make jokes about the white kids, but NOT ok for the white kids to make jokes about brown/black kids. Although, we made friendships work, the white kids never completely fit in to the cliques. We were the ‘white’ boy or girl of the group. â€Å"Back when television was dominant, young whites could consume black style and expressive culture† (IAW. 514). This describes almost every white boy or girl, and my high school experience. And now today, â€Å"the racial perceptions and biases we develop in our off-line lives, they conclude, likely creep into our online lives† (IAW. 515). So, just like my real-life high school experience, it has continued into our new age technologically advanced generation, where social media is taking over. Myspace and facebook are the new age cliques. And, as in the real world, is racially divided. It is being said more white people are using facebook and darker skinned people are using myspace. â€Å"Researchers began to ponder how social inequalities impact engagement with the internet† (IAW. 506). Social media mirrors our social divides in the real physical world. People migrate towards others who share the same values and beliefs, and who they are most comfortable interacting with. â€Å"Social inequalities still matter in the physical world. And as we are learning they also matter in the virtual world† (IAW. 507).

Flow of a Free Air Jet Laboratory Exercise

Flow of a Free Air Jet Laboratory Exercise An investigation into the structure of a free air jet and how its velocity is distributed during interaction with its surroundings Summary Air jets have provided the basis for jet propulsion mechanisms, commonly used to provide movement in jet engines, spacecraft and even particular marine animals. In aviation, it is important to measure an aircrafts velocity, altitude and Mach number in order to monitor performance and determine areas of improvement. In this experiment, a pitot-static tube system was set up along the axis of a free air jet, and the local velocity of the air jet was calculated and recorded using measurements from an inclined manometer as the pitot-tube was displaced in both the horizontal and vertical planes. The experimental and theoretical results highlighted the same trends, confirming the expectation that as decreased (due to increased displacement), local velocity, , also decreased. A divergence angle of 10.1ÂÂ ° was calculated, and the volume flow rate varied between 0.0149 m3s-1 and 0.049 m3s-1. Introduction An air jet is a nozzle or tube from which a directed pressurised jet of air is emitted. (1) These have provided the basis for jet propulsion producing a thrust in the opposite direction of the jet as demonstrated through Newtons third law. Airs jets are commonly used to provide movement in jet engines and spacecraft, and even certain marine animals have evolved to rely on jet propulsion mechanisms. (2) There are two main types of jet; impinging and free. While an impinging jet is directed towards a surface, this experiment is concerned with the interactions of a free, submerged air jet, where the jet is discharged into an ambient fluid of similar physical properties. (3) A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. (4) This is done by converting the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy (5). Pitot-static systems, consisting of a pitot tube, a static port and the necessary measuring instruments (6), are often used in aviation to determine an aircrafts velocity, altitude and Mach number, as well as having nautical applications in the calculation of boat and vessel speeds. (7) Theory 3.1 Velocity A pitot static tube measures two separate pressures: the stagnation pressure,, and the static pressure, (8) Bernoullis equation states that the total stagnation pressure is equal to the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure, . The dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the concerned medium, , and the square of the local velocity, v, such that: (equation 1) If the pressure difference between the stagnation pressure and static pressure is applied to alter the water level of a manometer, equilibrium is achieved when: (equation 2) Therefore, by combining equation 1 and equation 2, and assuming = 1.225 kgm-3 and = 1000 kgm-3, the local velocity in ms-1 can then be calculated through the relationship: (equation 3) 3.2 Flow Rate The volume flow rate leaving the nozzle of a circular air jet, can be considered equal to exit velocity, , multiplied by nozzle surface area, A. (9) This relationship is represented through the equation: (equation 4) Beyond the nozzle exit, the velocity cannot be considered constant at all vertical points in the jet; therefore, it is necessary to integrate to find the volume flow rate. The expanded profile of the air jet can be considered circular, consisting of a series of annuli areas containing an air flow rate equal to for each respective measured value of velocity and calculated area. This is represented visually in figure 1 below. Recalling the area of an annulus as, where is the radius along the mid-point of the annulus, and considering the asymmetrical profile of the final jet requires separate measurements in each hemisphere, the total volume flow rate can be calculated through: (equation 5) Here, is the local velocity at the required radius and is the area of half an annulus, where is the radius at which the velocity was measured. Method Apparatus Nozzle of diameter 30mm, to create the uniform circular jet of air to be measured. Pitot-static tube system, consisting of a pitot-tube, static tube and axial scales,to collect the air from the nozzle and carry it to the manometer. Manometer, inclined at an angle, ÃŽÂ ¸, which holds the liquid and allows for its movement depending on the pressure apparent from the pitot-static tube system. A zero, to locate the starting point at which measurements of the fluid distance along the manometer will be taken from. A ruler, to manually measure the distance travelled by the liquid along the manometer, . Procedure The zero was adjusted along the manometer to indicate the point at which further measurements with the ruler would be taken from and the pitot-static tube was moved along the apparatus to the origin, at the centre of the nozzle, where the coordinates corresponded to (0, 0). The air jet was turned on and, after allowing sufficient time to warm up, the distance the liquid had moved along the manometer, was measured, using the ruler, and recorded. The tube was then moved along the centreline across a series of predetermined distances away from the air jet (see Appendix A) up to 500mm the point (500,0) and was again measured and recorded at each interval. The pitot-static tube was then returned to sit 60mm away from the air jet and lowered to a vertical height of -28mm from the origin where was again measured and recorded. Maintaining an axial distance of 60mm, the pitot-static tube was then raised in increments of 4mm up to a maximum height of 28mm and the distance, , measured for each step. This experiment was then repeated at axial distances of 180mm and 300mm, through ranges of -50mm to 50mm and -60mm to 60mm respectively, using increments of 5mm in both. Results 5.1 Velocity Profiles The recorded distances,, for the three vertical experiments, were then converted into vertical distances, h; in this experiment, ÃŽÂ ¸ = 13ÂÂ °. The velocities at each height were then calculated using equation 3 and graphs of velocity against height for all three axial distances were drawn as shown in figures 3a, 3b and 3c below. 5.2 Plan View The divergence angle can be calculated by forming a triangle between the edge of the jet and a line perpendicular to the nozzle boundary; see figure 4. For this experiment: 5.3 Centreline Velocity Distribution The recorded distances, , for the centreline experiment were converted into vertical distances, h, using ÃŽÂ ¸ = 13ÂÂ °. The axial distance, x, was then divided by the nozzle diameter, D = 30mm, and a graph of velocity against was plotted, as seen below in figure 5. 5.4 Volume Flow Rate Assuming is constant at the edge of the nozzle, the exit volume flow rate can be calculated through equation 4: m3s-1 Beyond the nozzle exit, values for, the annulus width, and , the outer radius, were required to calculate volume flow rate. The values for were 4mm at an axial distance of 60mm, and 5mm at axial distances of 180mm and 300mm, and values for corresponded to the radial distances; these can be found in Appendices B, C and D. Using equation 5, the volume flow rates were found at x = 2D, x = 6D and x = 10D respectively, and the results displayed through table 1. Axial Distance (mm) Volume Flow Rate (m3s-1) 60 0.01925 180 0.034475 300 0.048705 A graph of volume flow rate against axial distance was then plotted for comparison; see figure 6 below. 6.1 Structure of the Air Jet An air jet is comprised of three important regions: the core, the mixing region and the edge or boundary. Within the core, the velocity does not vary significantly from the nozzle exit speed. From the measurements in this experiment, this region exists up to around 180mm along the centreline (see figure 5). Outside of the core, illustrated in figure 4, the mixing region is encountered. Throughout this region, the local velocity,, is less than the exit velocity, , due to the reaction of the air jet with the ambient fluid. The edge or boundary of the jet represents the radial distance at which the local velocity is equal to zero at each centreline distance. The edge of the jet increases linearly at a rate dependent on the divergence angle, measured to be 10.1ÂÂ ° in this experiment. This is similar to the universal value for the divergence of a jet of 11.8ÂÂ °, which is independent of nozzle diameter, discharge speed or the medium involved. (10) 6.2 Diameter of the Air Jet From the plan view illustrated in figure 4, it can clearly be seen that the air jet spreads out as axial distance increases. This occurs as a consequence of the significant velocity difference between the jet and the ambient fluid, which creates a highly unstable shear layer at the edge of the jet. This shear layer is subject to large variance in local velocities, generating strong turbulent fluctuations which subsequently entrain the ambient fluid into the path of the jet, increasing the mixing of the two fluids. As a consequence of both the turbulent fluctuations and the entrainment of the ambient fluid, the shear layer continues to be pushed outwards as the jet flows downstream. (11) 6.3 Centreline Volume Distribution Figure 5, above, clearly illustrates that up to a value of = 6, the velocity along the centreline varies very little, with a range of 0.833 ms-1. This region is known as the core, where. The only source of momentum when the jet exits the nozzle is from the jet itself, as the surrounding fluid is at rest. The absence of external forces acting on the jet suggests that the centreline velocity will remain constant as distance increases. (11) Beyond an axial distance of 180mm, the velocity follows an inversely proportional relationship with distance, decreasing at a rate of (where k is an unknown constant). This occurs when the core of the jet interacts with entrained ambient fluid caused by significant velocity fluctuations at the edge of the jet, decreasing the velocity of the fluid as discussed in section 5.2. Due to the interaction between two different fluid flows, the region in which this occurs is referred to as the mixing region. 6.4 Volume Flow Rate Figure 6 suggests that volume flow rate increases linearly with axial distance, rising from 0.015m3s-1 at the nozzle exit to 0.049m3s-1 at an axial distance of 300mm. From section 4.4, it is known that the volume flow rate is a function of the jet area and local velocities across the diameter. Due to conservation of momentum, it is expected that as the area increases, the velocity decreases such that the volume flow rate remains constant across all axial distances. However, the increase in volumetric flow is a result of entrainment of the stationary surrounding fluid. The turbulent flow caused by the velocity fluctuations in the shear layers contributes to an increased local velocity across the diameter of the jet, increasing volume flow rate. 6.5 Experimental Errors and Uncertainties Although this experiment has successfully demonstrated the characteristics of a free air jet as highlighted in this discussion section, numerous errors and uncertainties were still encountered throughout the experiment which could have had a potentially significant effect on the results obtained. One of the most common sources of uncertainty was the use of a ruler to measure the distance of the fluid along the manometer. This combined human error, due to the estimation of both the zero position and the final position of the fluid meniscus with systematic error, as a consequence of the ruler measuring with an uncertainty of ÂÂ ±1mm and therefore, accurate measurements for were not obtained. Similarly, the location of the necessary axial and radial positions for the pitot-tube were subject to a similar human error. The fluid in the manometer also contained several air bubbles prior to the experiment; this is a systematic error as it would subsequently affect every manometer dista nce reading. Therefore, it is possible that the results obtained for could consistently higher than expected due to the presence of these air bubbles in the fluid. The final significant error involved in this experiment was the random error associated with the changing position of the static tube. For a set axial and radial positioning of the pitot-static tube, changing the height and geometry of the static tube caused the manometer reading to alter slightly as well. Although efforts were made to maintain the location of this tube, there is still the possibility it could have caused sporadic errors in the results. To conclude, the experiment outlined in this report was successful in demonstrating the interactions of a free air jet with an ambient fluid and, subsequently, the effects of the displacement of the pitot-tube on the local velocity along the centreline and throughout the mixing region. The decreasing local velocity as displacement increased was found to be a result of turbulent fluctuations causing entrainment of ambient fluid into the path of the jet. In the experiment, the maximum velocity was found to be around 20ms-1 for a distance of 180mm along the centreline of the jet and the divergence angle was calculated to be 10.1ÂÂ °. These results were useful in introducing the basic structure of an air jet, which comprises of three main regions: the core, the mixing region, and the edge. The slight discrepancy between the measured divergence angle and the universal angle of 11.8ÂÂ ° (9) can be considered due to the inaccuracy in measuring the position of the fluid meniscus in the manometer using a ruler, producing potentially unreliable results. The findings from this experiment are statistically insignificant due to the nature of the apparatus used and the various possible sources of error, both systematic, due to air bubbles present in the manometer fluid, and human, arising from the use of a ruler for distance measurements. However, the experiment was useful in demonstrating the interactions of an air jet with its surroundings, as well as introducing the concept of internal structures within a free air jet. [1] Oxford Dictionaries, Air Jet, [Online]. Available: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/air_jet. [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [2] LearningInfo, Which Animals use Jet Propulsion, [Online]. Available: http://www.learninginfo.org/sandbox/which-animals-use-jet-propulsion.htm. [Accessed 25 March 2017]. [3] W. Grassi, Impinging Jets, 2 February 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.thermopedia.com/content/872/ . [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [4] Wikipedia, Pitot Tube, [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube. [Accessed 25 March 2017]. [5] Efunda, Pitot Tubes Theory, [Online]. Available: http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/pitot_tubes/pitot_tubes_theory.cfm. [Accessed 26 March 2017]. [6] P. Willits, Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot, Jeppesen Sanderson, 2004. [7] S. Houston, Pitot Static System, 13 October 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.thebalance.com/aircraft-systems-pitot-static-system-282605. [Accessed 26 March 2017]. [8] I. Gursal, Flow of a Free Air Jet, University of Bath, Bath, 2017. [9] Khan Academy, What is Volume Flow Rate, [Online]. Available: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-volume-flow-rate. [Accessed 27 March 2017]. [10] Dartmouth College, Turbulent Jets, [Online]. Available: https://thayer.dartmouth.edu/~d30345d/books/EFM/chap9.pdf. [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [11] Anon, Jet, [Online]. Available: https://www.eng.fsu.edu/~shih/succeed/jet/jet.htm. [Accessed 29 March 2017].

Bob Dylan Essay -- essays research papers

Regarding significant musical movements in history, more specifically the twenty first century, few were more important than the folk revolution that took shape in the mid-nineteen hundreds. One of the leaders of this revolution was Robert Allen Zimmerman, known by his popular assumed name, Bob Dylan. Born in 1941 in Minnesota, Dylan grew up the grandchild of Jewish-Russian immigrants and had a surprisingly unexceptional childhood. His interest in music became evident in his high school years when he taught himself basic piano and guitar. From these rudimentary skills Dylan would build his knowledge and experience in music to his present status as a forefather of folk music in the rock era. Accordingly, a song from the pinnacle of his career embodies his style and poetic capabilities, acting as a reference point of the music it followed and the music that was to come. Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowland is an unmistakably remarkable example of the work of Bob Dylan in his finest hour. To fully understand the influence of Bob Dylan on the American folk revolution and his importance in the pop culture of today’s youth, one must first understand his background and development musically. First of all Bob Dylan was born in Minnesota, not a particular hub of musical activity. Author Bob Spitz makes a good point concerning Dylan’s birthplace. History has taught us that no matter how we change the environment it is impossible to change the man...After all, anybody is as their land and air is....If that is so, it is no wonder that Bob Dylan became such a luminous amalgam of showmanship and aloofness, spirituality and desolation, eloquence and exaggeration, individuality and schizophrenia. These seesawing extremes, among others, are indigenous to the historical landscape of northern Minnesota. (Spitz 9) For others this might have been a setback but for Dylan it was the perfect environment to nurture his interests, in music specifically. At the age of ten he was writing poems and by thirteen was setting them to music with self-taught piano and guitar skills. Dylan’s interest in music continued to climb as he entered Hibbing High School. During his high school years Dylan would become involved in musical productions and attempt forming many bands with such names as the Golden Chords and Elston Gunn and His Rock Bop... ...calls streetcar visions, a direct reference to Tennessee Williams play â€Å"A Street Car Called Desire.† The symbolism continues throughout the song and is accompanied with music that, while not the best of his career, still defined the American folk sound. The music is acoustic once again after he made a brief stint recording with bands and electric guitars. The melody is simple and flows throughout the piece’s seven minute length. There is minimal background accompaniment but what does exist advances the rhythm of the song. Truly it is Dylan’s voice that is the essence of the song. His raspy, nasal sound gives the song character that it definitely would not have minus his vocals. The best information I can provide someone who is interested in the work of Dylan is to get any of his early albums and listen to what today’s music started as. The folk movement of the late nineteen fifties and early sixties was led by a man who overcame a humble upbringing and, through hard work, created for himself the life he desired to live. His music is revered as classic and at the same time historical. His song, â€Å"Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands†, is a testament to that.

Christmas History :: essays research papers

Christmas History The word Christmas comes from the old English "Cristes maesse" meaning Christ's Mass. The Holiday celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. The actual birthday of Jesus is not known; therefore, the early Church Fathers in the 4th century fixed the day around the old Roman Saturnalia festival (17 - 21 December), a traditional pagan festivity. The first mention of the birthday of Jesus is from the year 354 AD. Gradually all Christian churches, except Armenians who celebrate Christmas on January 6 (the date of the baptism of Jesus as well as the day of the three Magi), accepted the date of December 25th. In American/English tradition, Christmas Day itself is the day for opening gifts brought by jolly old St. Nick. Many of our current American ideals about the way Christmas ought to be, derive from the English Victorian Christmas, such as that described in Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol." The caroling, the gifts, the feast, and the wishing of good cheer to all - these ingredients came together to create that special Christmas atmosphere. The custom of gift-giving on Christmas goes back to Roman festivals of Saturnalia and Kalends. The very first gifts were simple items such as twigs from a sacred grove as good luck emblems. Soon that escalated to food, small items of jewelry, candles, and statues of gods. To the early Church, gift- giving at this time was a pagan holdover and therefore severely frowned upon. However, people would not part with it, and some justification was found in the original gift giving of the Magi, and from figures such as St. Nicholas. By the middle ages gift giving was accepted. Before then it was more common to exchange gifts on New Year's Day or Twelfth Night. Santa Claus is known by British children as Father Christmas. Father Christmas, these days, is quite similar to the American Santa, but his direct ancestor is a certain pagan spirit who regularly appeared in medieval mummer's plays. The old-fashioned Father Christmas was depicted wearing long robes with sprigs of holly in his long white hair. Children write letters to Father Christmas detailing their requests, but instead of dropping them in the mailbox, the letters are tossed into the fireplace. The draft carries the letters up the chimney, and theoretically, Father Christmas reads the smoke. Gifts are opened Christmas afternoon. From the English we get a story to explain the custom of hanging stockings from the mantelpiece. Father Christmas once dropped some gold coins while coming down the chimney. The coins would have fallen through the ash grate and been

The Green Sea Turtle

The Green Sea Turtle is one of only 7 species of sea turtle, with all being in danger of becoming extinct. It is one of the largest sea turtles and has the highest migratory area. This report will cover from its physical description through to the specific role that it plays in the environment, as well as solutions to bring the creature to a least concern of extinction. Animal Profile: The Green Sea Turtle’s carapace (shell) has a mottled brown top, with it’s under shell a creamy white and this shell is often covered in algal growth. Its flesh is a light green and its head is relatively small, when compared to its body. Contrasting to the other sea turtles, it can’t put its head into its shell. The turtle’s front members are flipper-like, which propel it through the water at great speeds when needed. When hatchlings emerge from their eggs, they will weigh about 1 ounce, with the carapace only 2 inches long. Sub-adults will have a weight of approximately 200-350 pounds and will grow over 2 and a half feet long. Whereas the fully grown adult can weigh up to 400 pound (317. kg) and its carapace will expand to 5 feet long. The Green Sea Turtle is a reptile, and it comes from the family of Cheloniidae. The average lifetime expectancy for the Green Sea Turtle usually lasts more than 80 years in the wild, and it takes over 25 years for them to reach sexual maturity. One of the only differences between the 2 sexes, is that the males have longer and thicker tails than the females, and they also have one single mating claw, on the back of the fore flippers.

Great Gatsby and Hamlet comparision Essay

Throughout both books GG and H, there are several discrepancies between appearances vs. reality. It appears that everyone is full of deception and ulterior motives. Tom, Daisy and Gatsby all appear innocent and happy from an outsider’s perspective but when given a closer look the imperfections shine bright†¦. Hamlet is based aroundcharacters that play their roles behind the veil of duplicity. Everything appears to be true and accurate, but in reality it’s vice-versa. Three of the main characters that hid behind the mask are Hamlet, King Claudius, and Polonius. From behind this mask, their appearance is genuine and sincere, whereas in reality, they’re plagued with lies. They often appear to be only one way whilst they really are something entirely different. By viewing the controversies going on in Denmark, it is justifiable to state that there is truly something rotten in the state of Denmark. BP#1 Polonius and Tom -P appears loyal; reality sly and selfish. P appears to care about his family when in reality he is only concerned of how his kid’s actions reflect back on him. Right before Laertes leave for France P â€Å"Neither a borrower nor a lender be: For loan oft loses both itself and friend; And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.†This is typically fatherly advice, but later it is realized that P doesn’t trust L when he sends someone to spy on him. P actions may seem genuine but later they prove no more than P worried about his son’s reflection upon himself. -Like P, T appears to be a loyal man especially to his family, when in reality he is extremely disloyal to D. â€Å"Tom’s got some woman in NY†. Tom is not happy w his marriage as he feels the need to cheat. At the dinner table, D quickly brings up how she has a bruised finger and is in pain â€Å"That’s what I get for marrying a brute of a man, a great big hulking-â€Å". T has told D not to call him â€Å"hulking†, her defiance to her husband shows how unhappy she is w their marriage. Both P and T appear to be loyal from an outsider’s perspective but in reality they both portray selflessness and carelessness towards their families. BP#2 Claudius and Daisy -Claudius appears innocent, upset about his brother’s death and concerned for Hamlets well being. Claudius in reality is multi-faced and his ambition is to aquire the crown by killing his brother and marries his sister in law.  Claudius fears that H is going to discover what he has done and come after him. He investigates H madness by saying he is worries about H. â€Å"Whose whisper o’er the world’s diameter, as levels as the cannon to his blank transports his poisoned shot, may miss our name and hit the woundless air. Oh come away! My soul is full of discord and dismay†. D appears innocent and happy w her life; reality is she is married T because of status and is therefore unhappy. Even though she is unhappy w her marriage it is clear that status means a lot to her, especially when she is with Gatsby and he is showing her all his expensive items â€Å"It makes me sad because I have never seen such nice shirts before†. Daisy also says â€Å"Of love, of money, of unquestionable practicality† it was practical for her to marry T but this quote also suggests that T bought her. Both C and D married to achieve a higher status and for the betterment of themselves. They both achieved higher status and by doing this prove that they married out of greed than love. BP#3 Gatsby and Hamlet G appears rich, well educated (G believes that a man’s education is what categorizes the lower class from the upper class) and innocent; reality became rich through illegal means; bootlegging, is not educated and desperately wants D. â€Å"I’ll tell you Gods truth†¦I am the son of some wealthy people in the middle-west† as a result his family background is an ex. Of the false appearance G portrays. He mourns so deeply regarding the death of his father and his mother’s remarriage with his uncle that he appears insane, yet in reality he takes the advantage of his insanity to avenge his father’s wrongful killing. Another reason is, his love for Ophelia. He is deeply hurt due to the ignorance of Ophelia that he uses it to advantage, by showing hate towards her, in order to make others think that his madness is due to his rejected love. He uses his madness to manipulate and deceive the other characters, while in reality he is carrying out his master plan. He plays his role extremely well by showing his madness that he is able to convince Polonius that it’s all due to his rejected love, Ophelia. â€Å"He knew me not at first; he said I as a fishmonger: he is far gone, far gone: and truly in my youth I suffered much extremity for love; very near this.† –P is reporting to C that H is insane Both H and G are tragic heroes. Hamlets flaw being his procrastination and Gatsby’s flaw is his belief that you can  relive the past. Both characters are blinded by the thing they want most and the obsession with it fuels their actions causing both characters to take it so far that they end up hurting themselves and others around them in their recklessness.

Coffee and Starbucks Executives Essay

Starbucks developed continuously and rapidly after Howard Schultz bought it. It was entered in â€Å"Fortune 500 companies† in March 2003. Because of the saturation of the market, Starbucks can not only relied on the American market, but also had to venture abroad and paid close attention to the growth of subsidiaries. During the expansion, Starbucks stuck to its basic principles and innovated constantly to cater to the taste of the native. Although Starbucks was operated successfully, it also experienced losses in many countries and faced many challenges and risk. It is essential for MNCs to choose the right mode of entry in any markets and make structural changes to motivate strategic changes, even mature MNCs, which can transfer some risk. Starbucks decided to use three strategies to enter into the international markets-licensing, wholly owned subsidiaries and joint ventures. Every strategy has its advantages and disadvantages, so managers of Starbucks need to consider carefully before entering other countries. Starbucks makes the different ways to enter in the markets according to the different situations of countries. For instance, Canada is close to America so the cultures and the habit of drinking coffee are close too. Starbucks chooses wholly owned subsidiary type to enter Canadian market. Some Asian countries such as Japan and Hong Kong, China, Starbucks selects joint ventures to get in these countries because their taste of coffee is different from American’s. Moreover, the strategic adjustment of Starbucks was to cover over an area in new stores. That can not only assist to disperse consumers and reduce their waiting time, but also decrease the costs and increase revenues. It also innovated some new products and cooperated with local companies. Culture, government, environment and the condition of Starbucks, all these can affect the choice of strategy. In short, before choosing strategy, managers of Starbucks ought to analyze the SWOT of Starbucks, the key environmental factors and how will this strategy influence the development of the company. Starbucks went international because it wanted to seek new international markets and opportunities of growth. Starbucks did many good management and analysis of risk before entering into different markets. It further researched the prospect of the products in other countries’ markets. Then it tried to sell in the local fashionable shops and was operated by expert managers from Seattle. Starbucks persisted in keeping their No Smoking principle and broad floor area, which attracted many Japanese women. That is a successful alliance that through using its own resources and cooperating with Sazaby, it understood the Japanese habits of drinking coffee drinks and introduced new products. Starbucks realized that young people in Asian countries were interested in the western way of life so it seized that mentality and attracted them successfully. Starbucks adjusted constantly to adapt the cultures of the host countries. For example, it offered meat buns and curry puffs to Asian countries because Asians like eating some food when drinking coffee. It is popular that the best coffee around the world is in Europe. However, Starbucks executives thought that coffees in Europe now is not as great as in the late 1990s so stores were opened quickly and bravely in Europe. The romantic atmosphere, No Smoking environment and self-help service mode of operation were the main reasons that attracted the young. Also, Starbucks provided an independent region for Middle East ladies because of its distinct culture. From the above examples, it seems that Starbucks considered completely. It did internal analysis to use its key success factors to help the company make full use of the opportunities abroad. It also analyzed the culture and environmental risk of the local markets. Starbucks faced many challenges and risk in the international operation. Firstly, the unstable political environment of the Middle East is one of the problems for Starbucks. The close relationship between America and Israel made Arab students boycott American services and goods. This is the political risk to Starbucks. Secondly, Starbucks faced crisis from non-governmental organizations. They asked Starbucks to afford the authentication of coffee beans to insure the production of coffee beans was proceeded under a certain social and financial condition. This is the environmental risk. Thirdly, Starbucks has country risk that the economic recession in some countries made the sales and revenues dropped sharply. Fourthly, Starbucks faced drastic industrial competition, high costs of developing business and resistance from customers who objected to globalization, especially in Europe. This is the strategic risk. Fifthly, complex joint ventures and application license agreement, lack of well-trained employees and appropriate store address, all of these made Starbucks hard to gain more profit and control the costs of international operation. This is the operational risk. Starbucks try to reduce the risk in many methods. First and foremost, Starbucks decided to offer new products to control the costs of international operation. Then, it announced to slow down the pace of expansion and close the defective stores. Also, Starbucks should reconsider the entry strategy and keep a watchful eye on price. The most important is to be careful to the international environment because there are many factors can affect the Starbucks’ decision-making. Starbucks recombined its structure and changed its strategy with its internationalization.

Analysis of Ahab Moby Dick Essay

1. Dictator: Melville describes Ahab as a dictator. He, as the captain, is the most respectful figure in the Pequod. Some critics say that the novel is a metaphor from the world. Everyone depends of one person. It is a political point of view. The Pequod is seen as a small world. He is a â€Å"grand, ungodly, god-like† man. Ahab is ungodly in that he refuses to submit to any higher power. He does not worship or even acknowledge the superiority of forces beyond himself. Ahab is god-like in that he is larger than life. 2. Obsession: Ahab considers Moby Dick the embodiment of evil in the world, and he pursues the White Whale monomaniacally because he believes it his inescapable fate to destroy this evil. He is obsessed with revenge. Moby Dick dominates the personality of Ahab. He gradually goes crazier and crazier, eventually blaming Moby Dick for everything bad that has ever happened to any human being ever since the beginning of time. Melville describes Ahab as a â€Å"monomaniac,† an interesting word because it suggests two things: first, that Ahab’s insanity focuses itself obsessively on a single thing (Moby Dick), and second, that he’s only insane when it comes to that one thing – he can be rational about just about everyone else. 3. Suffering: Ahab believes that his suffering stems from the White Whale known as Moby Dick. . He lost more than leg the first time he fought against Moby Dick: he lost his pride, his free will, and his very being. His sole purpose after this encounter was to kill Moby-Dick, all else was cast aside. His wife, home, friends, and family do not even cross his mind. Ahab basically spends his life alone in the sea. He feels in home when he is in the ocean. He is always looking for Moby Dick, looking along. He has not friends; he is a romantic hero. Ahab is not a happy human being, he is like heroes of Shakespearean tragedy. He is suffering for the pain he has inside from the beginning to the end of the novel. Close to the end of the novel Melville makes a reflection about Ahab’s life, trying to humanize him. He is lamenting everything on his life.

South America

Introduction The continent of South America has about one-eighth of the Earth's land surface, situated between latitudes 12 °N-55 °S and longitudes 80 °-35 °W; no other continent has a greater latitudinal span. Eighty percent of its land mass is within the tropical zone, yet it extends into the subantarctic. The extensive zones of temperate and cold climates in the vicinity of the Equator, in the Andes, are unique. The land area of about 17,519,900-17,529,250 km? is under the jurisdiction of 13 countries (Table 49); French Guiana is governed as an overseas department of France.The region's 1995 population of c. 320 million people is estimated to reach 452 million people in 2025. Three of the world's 21 megacities are in South America: Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro (WRI, UNEP and UNDP 1994). Geological setting Although the neotropics may be conveniently considered as a single phytogeographic unit, the region is geologically complex. The neotropics include not only the South American continental plate but the southern portion of the North American plate, as well as the independent Caribbean plate (Clapperton 1993).The complicated geological history of the region, for example as these plates intermittently separated and collided through the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, provides the milieu within which plant evolution has been superimposed. South America has been an island continent during most of the period of angiosperm evolution, whereas Central America constitutes one of the two tropical parts of the Laurasian â€Å"world continent†. Both South America and North America have been moving westward, roughly in tandem, since the breakup of Pangaea in the Mesozoic.In contrast, the Antillean plate with its flotsam of Antillean islands formed only during the Cenozoic and has moved in a retrograde eastern direction, at least with respect to its larger neighbours. Whereas South America and North America have been widely separated through most of their geological histories, there has been generally increasing contact between them through most of the Cenozoic, culminating in their coalescence with formation of the Isthmus of Panama c. 3. 1 million years ago (Keigwin 1978).The date of this epochal event in neotropical geological history has been gradually estimated to be younger, with estimates of 5. 7 million years ago giving way to as recently as 1. 8 million years ago (Keller, Zenker and Stone 1989). In addition to their Pleistocene connection via the Isthmus of Panama, South America and North America apparently were more or less directly interconnected via the protoAntilles for a short time near the end of the Cretaceous, prior to formation of the Caribbean plate (Buskirk 1992).The outstanding geological feature of South America is the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, which extends in a nearly straight line of over 7000 km from the north to the southern tip of the continent. The Andes have the highest mo untain in the Western Hemisphere, the highest mountain in the world's tropics, and as measured from the centre of the Earth (rather than metres above sea-level), the highest mountain in the world.The most important break in the north-south sweep of the â€Å"cordillera† is the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the eastern chain of the cordillera is entirely ruptured (by the Maranon River) and even the western chain dips to 2145 m (at the Abra de Porculla). The existence of this massive mountain range has had profound effects on plant and animal evolution in South America, and consequently has profound effects on essential conservation priorities.In essence, the Andes represent a classical plate tectonic upthrust of continental rock, as the leading edge of the westward-moving South American plate collides with the oceanic Pacific plates. The Southern Andes are the oldest, with significant uplift already present in early Cenozoic times, prior to the Oligocene. Most of the uplift of the Central Andes was in the Miocene or later, whereas most of the uplift of the northern portion of the cordillera has been Plio-Pleistocene (van der Hammen 1974).To the north the Andes become more geologically complex, breaking into three separate cordilleras on the Ecuador/Colombia border. Much of the north-western margin of South America, including Colombia's western and central cordilleras, appears to be amassed â€Å"suspect terrane† rather than an integral part of the South American continental plate (Juteau  et al. 1977; McCourt, Aspden and Brook 1984). Much of the rest of the South American continent consists of two great crystalline shields that represent the western portion of what was once Gondwanaland.The north-eastern portion of the continent constitutes the Guayana Shield, whereas much of Brazil south of Amazonia is underlain by the Brazilian Shield. These two major shields were formerly interconnected across what is today the Lower Amazon. They consist of a Precambrian igneous basement overlain by ancient mucheroded Precambrian sediments. The Guayana region has been the most heavily eroded, with basement elevations mostly below 500 m interrupted by massive flattopped table mountains, the fabled â€Å"tepuis†, typically rising to 2000 m or 2500 m.The peak of the highest of these, Cerro Neblina or Pico da Neblina on the Venezuela/Brazil border, reaches an altitude of 3015 m and is the highest point in South America outside the Andes. The tepuis and similar formations are highest and most extensive in southern Venezuela, becoming smaller and more isolated to the west and east where La Macarena near the base of the Andes in Colombia and the Inini-Camopi Range in French Guiana respectively represent their ultimate vestiges.The quartzite and sandstone of the Guayana Shield erode into nutrient-poor sands, and much of the Guayana region is characterized by extreme impoverishment of soils. The rivers draining this regio n are largely very acidic blackwater rivers, of which the Rio Negro is the most famous. The Brazilian Shield is generally higher and less dissected, with much of central Brazil having an elevation of 800-1000 m. The Brazilian Shield is mostly drained by clearwater rivers such as the Tapajos and Xingu.In contrast to these ancient shields, the Amazonian heartland of South America is low and geologically young. Prior to the Miocene most of Amazonia constituted a large inland sea opening to the Pacific. With uplift of the Central Andes, this sea became a giant lake that gradually filled with Andean sediments. When the Amazon River broke through the narrow connection between the Guayanan and Brazilian shields near Santarem, Brazil, Amazonia began to drain eastward into the Atlantic.Nevertheless, the region remains so flat that ocean-going ships can reach Iquitos, Peru, which is only 110 m above sea-level, yet 3000 km from the mouth of the Amazon and less than 800 km from the Pacific Ocea n. Most of Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is below 200 m in elevation. The process of Amazonian sedimentation is continuing, as the sediment-laden white-water rivers course down from the Andes, continually changing their channels and depositing and redepositing their sediments along the way.About 26% of Peruvian Amazonia shows direct evidence of recent riverine reworking (Salo  et al. 1986). With the lack of relief, it is not surprising that rather fine nuances of drainage, topography and depositional history are often major determinants of vegetation. Like Amazonia, some other distinctive geological features of the South American continent are relatively low, flat and geologically young, such as the chaco/pantanal/pampa region to the south, the Venezuelan/Colombian Llanos to the north and the trans-Andean Choco region of Colombia and Ecuador to the west.Large portions of these areas have been inundated during periods of high sea-level in the past, and large portions of all o f these regions are seasonally inundated presently. One aspect of the geological history of Latin America that has received much biogeographic attention is the series of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and their effects on distribution and evolution of the present neotropical biota. It is clear from the palynological record that major changes in vegetation were associated with the cycles of Pleistocene glaciation (e. . van der Hammen 1974), although to what extent lowland Amazonia was predominantly drier (e. g. Haffer 1969; van der Hammen 1974), colder (Colinvaux 1987; Liu and Colinvaux 1988) or both, and how this affected the Pleistocene distribution of tropical forest, remain hotly contested (Colinvaux 1987; Rasanen, Salo and Kalliola 1991). Although most of the corroborative geomorphological evidence for dry periods in the tropical lowlands during the Pleistocene is now otherwise interpreted (Irion 1989; Colinvaux 1987), some new data look promising.There are also several other theories that attempt to explain aspects of present biogeography on the basis of past geological events, including river-channel formation and migration (Capparella 1988; Salo  et al. 1986; Salo and Rasanen 1989), hypothesized massive flooding in south-western Amazonia (Campbell and Frailey 1984), and the formation of a putative giant Pleistocene lake in Amazonia (Frailey  et al. 1988). Mesoamerica For its size, Middle America is even more complex geologically than South America (see Central America regional overview).Nuclear Central America, an integral part of the North American continent, reaches south to central Nicaragua. The region from southern Nicaragua to the isthmus of Darien in Panama is geologically younger and presents recent volcanism, uplift and associated sedimentation. Like South America, the northern neotropics have a mountainous spine that breaks into separate cordilleras in the north. In general the Middle American cordilleras are highest to the north in Mex ico, and lowest in Panama to the south-east.In Mexico, the geological picture is complicated by a band of volcanoes that bisects the continent from east to west at the latitude of Mexico City. This â€Å"eje volcanico transversal† is associated with the Mexican megashear, along which the southern half of the country has gradually moved eastward with respect to the northern half. In southern Central America, volcanism has been most intensive in Costa Rica, which has two sections of its Central Cordillera reaching above treeline. In northern Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua the volcanoes become gradually reduced in size and more isolated from each other to the north.Similarly in Panama the Central Cordillera is over 2000 m high to the west near the Costa Rican border but only about 500 m high in most of the eastern part of the country. In central Panama, the Panama Canal cuts through a continental divide of only 100 m elevation, and in the San Juan River/Lake Nicaragua area of Nicaragua the maximum elevation is even less. For montane organisms, these interruptions in the cordillera represent major biological discontinuities. The Yucatan Peninsula area of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize represents a geologically anomalous portion of Middle America.It is a flat limestone formation more like the Greater Antilles or Peninsular Florida than the mountainous terrain and volcanic soil of most of Middle America. Limestone is otherwise relatively rare in the continental neotropics, in contrast to many other parts of the world, with small outcrops like those in the Madden Lake region of central Panama or the Coloso area of northern Colombia being associated with peculiar floras. These areas, like the Yucatan Peninsula, tend to show distinctly Antillean floristic affinities, paralleling the geological ones.Caribbean The Antillean islands constitute the third geologic unit of the neotropics (see Caribbean Islands regional overview). The Antilles make up in geological co mplexity what they lack in size. The most striking geological anomaly is Hispaniola, which is a composite of what were three separate islands during much of the Cenozoic. In addition to being completely submerged during part of the midCenozoic, the southern peninsula of Hispaniola was probably attached to Cuba instead of Hispaniola until the end of the Cenozoic.Jamaica too was completely submerged during much of the mid-Cenozoic, and has a different geological history from the rest of the Greater Antilles, with closer connections to Central America via the nowsubmerged Nicaraguan Rise. Possibly a collision of the western end of the Greater Antilles island arc with Mexico-Guatemala fragmented its western end to form Jamaica. Also phytogeographically and conservationally important, some of the Antilles have extensive areas of distinctive substrates.In addition to large areas of limestone, most of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) have significant areas of serpentine and other ultrabasic rocks formed from uplift of patches of oceanic crust during the north-eastward movement of the Caribbean plate. The Lesser Antilles are small and actively volcanic. Most of the other smaller islands are low limestone keys with little or no geological relief. These patterns are clearly reflected in the Antillean flora. The most striking concentrations of local endemism occur in areas of ultrabasic rocks or on unusual types of limestone on the larger islands.The Lesser Antilles, Bahamas and other smaller islands have only a depauperate subset of the generally most widespread Antillean taxa. Vegetation The neotropics include a broad array of vegetation types commensurate with their ecological diversity. Along the west coast of South America are both one of the wettest places in the world – Tutunendo in the Choco region of Colombia, with 11,770 mm of annual precipitation, and the driest – no rain has been recorded in parts of the Atacama Desert of Chi le.The largest tract of rain forest in the world is in the Amazon Basin, and Amazonia has received a perhaps disproportionate share of the world's conservation attention. While the forests of Upper Amazonia are the most diverse in the world for many kinds of organisms, including trees as well as butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, other vegetation types have equal or greater concentrations of local endemism and are more acutely threatened.In particular, the plight of dry forests and of Andean montane forests are beginning to receive increased attention. Some isolated areas of lowland moist forest outside of Amazonia also have highly endemic floras and are currently much more threatened than Amazonia. In the following paragraphs are sketched the major neotropical vegetation types, followed by a conservation assessment of each. At the very broadest level, the lowland vegetation types of South America and the rest of the neotropics may be summarized as: 1.Tropical moi st forest (evergreen or semi-evergreen rain forest)  in Amazonia, the coastal region of Brazil, the Choco and the lower Magdalena Valley, and along the Atlantic coast of Central America to Mexico. 2. Dry forest (intergrading into woodland)  along the Pacific side of Mexico and Central America, in northern Colombia and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and adjacent Peru, the Velasco area (Chiquitania) of eastern Bolivia, a broad swath from north-west Argentina to north-east Brazil encompassing chaco, cerrado and caatinga, and with scattered smaller patches elsewhere. 3.Open grassy savanna  in the pampas region of north-eastern Argentina and adjacent Uruguay and southernmost Brazil, the Llanos de Mojos and adjacent pantanal of Bolivia and Brazil, the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and the Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna in the Guayana region. 4. Desert and arid steppe  in northern Mexico, the dry Sechura and Atacama regions along the west coast of South America between 5 °S a nd 30 °S, and in the monte and Patagonian steppes of the south-eastern part of the Southern Cone of South America. 5. The  Mediterranean-climate region  of central Chile. 6.The  temperate evergreen forests  of southern Chile with an adjacent fringe of Argentina. More complex montane formations occur along the Andean Cordillera which stretches the length of the western periphery of South America, in the more interrupted Central American/Mexican cordilleran system, in the tepuis of the Guayana region and in the coastal cordillera of southern Brazil. Moist and wet forests In general, forests receiving more than 1600 mm (Gentry 1995) or 2000 mm (Holdridge 1967) of annual rainfall are evergreen or semi-evergreen and may be referred to as tropical moist forest.In the neotropics, lowland tropical moist forest is often further subdivided, following the Holdridge life-zone system, into moist forest (2000-4000 mm of precipitation annually), wet forest (4000-8000 mm) and pluvial fore st (over 8000 mm). Nearly all of the Amazon Basin receives 2000 mm or more of annual rainfall and constitutes variants of the moist forest. There are also several major regions of lowland moist forest variously disjunct from the Amazonian core area. These include the region along the Atlantic coast of Central America (extending into Mexico), the lower Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, the Choco egion along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador, and the coastal forests of Brazil. Lowland moist forest is the most diverse neotropical vegetation type, structurally as well as taxonomically. In most lowland moist-forest and wet-forest regions around a quarter of the species are vines and lianas, a quarter to a half terrestrial herbs (including weeds), up to a quarter vascular epiphytes and only about a quarter trees (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Gentry 1990b).To the extent that smaller organisms such as herbs and epiphytes may demand different conservation strategies than lar ge organisms like trees (or top predators), this habitat diversity assumes conservation importance. Diversity patterns are also important for conservation planning. There is a strong correlation of plant community diversity with precipitation – wetter forests generally are more botanically diverse. For plants the most speciesrich forests in the world are the aseasonal lowland moist and wet forests of Upper Amazonia and the Choco region.For plants over 2. 5 cm dbh in 0. 1-ha samples, world record sites are in the pluvial-forest area of the Colombian Choco (258-265 species); for plants over 10 cm dbh in 1-ha plots, the world record is near Iquitos, Peru (300 species out of 606 individual trees and lianas). Concentrations of endemism do not necessarily follow those of diversity. Local endemism appears to be concentrated in cloud-forest regions along the base of the northern Andes and in adjacent southern Central America (cf.Vazquez-Garcia 1995), and in the north-western sector o f Amazonia where the substrate mosaic associated with sediments from the Guayana Shield is most complex (Gentry 1986a). Overall regional endemism in predominantly moist-forest areas is greatest in Amazonia, with an estimated 13,700 endemic species constituting 76% of the flora (Gentry 1992d). However many of these species are relatively widespread within Amazonia. The much more restricted (and devastated, see below) Mata Atlantica forests of coastal Brazil have almost three-quarters as many endemic species (c. 500) as Amazonia and similarly high endemism (73% of the flora) (Gentry 1992d). Moreover a larger proportion of the Mata Atlantica species probably are locally endemic. On the other side of South America, the trans-Andean very wet to wet and moist forests of the Choco and coastal Ecuador are also geographically isolated and highly endemic (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982). Estimates of endemism in the Choco phytogeographic region are c. 20% (Gentry 1982b). Probably about 1260 or 20% of western Ecuador's 6300 naturally occurring species also are endemic (Dodson and Gentry 1991).For the northern Andean region as a whole, including both the coastal lowlands of western Colombia and Ecuador and the adjacent uplands, Gentry (1992d) estimated over 8000 endemic species, constituting 56% of the flora. Moreover this is probably the floristically most poorly known part of the neotropics, perhaps of the world, surely with several thousand mostly endemic species awaiting discovery and description. Dry forests There are seven main areas of dry forest in the neotropics, and by some estimations this may be the most acutely threatened of all neotropical vegetations.The interior dry areas of South America are outstanding in their regional endemism, estimated at 73%. Two of the most extensive neotropical dry-forest areas represent manifestations of the standard interface between the subtropical high pressure desert areas and the moist equatorial tropics. In Middle America, th is area of strongly seasonal climate occurs mostly along the Pacific coast in a narrow but formerly continuous band from Mexico to the Guanacaste region of north-western Costa Rica.There are also outliers farther south in the Terraba Valley of Costa Rica, Azuero Peninsula of Panama, and even around Garachine in the Darien (Panama), partially connecting the main Middle American dry forest with that of northern South America. These western Middle American dry forests are made up almost entirely of broadleaved deciduous species. In addition, the northern part of the Yucatan and large areas of the Antilles are covered by dry-forest variants. Most of the Caribbean dry forests are on limestone, and their woody species tend to be distinctively more sclerophyllous and smaller leaved than are the Pacific coast dry-forest plants.In the driest areas, both these types of dry forest tend to smaller stature and merge into various kinds of thorn-scrub matorral. In South America, only the extreme n orthern parts of Colombia and Venezuela reach far enough from the Equator to enter the strongly seasonal subtropical zone. Floristically and physiognomically this northern dry area is very much like similarly dry areas of western Middle America. The strongly seasonal region of northern South America also includes the open savannas of the Llanos extending from the Orinoco River west and north to the base of the Eastern Cordillera of he Colombian Andes and the north slope of the Coast Range of Venezuela. Large areas of the lowlying, often poorly drained Llanos are seasonally inundated, especially in the Apure region. The main area of tropical dry forest in South America is the chaco region, encompassing the western half of Paraguay and adjacent areas of Bolivia and Argentina, south of 17 °S latitude. The â€Å"chaco† is physiognomically distinctive in being a dense scrubby vegetation of mostly smallleaved, spiny branched small trees interspersed with scattered large individua ls of a few characteristic species of large trees.To the south, the chaco gives way to the desert scrub of the Argentine monte. There is a distinctive but generally neglected area of dry forest at the interface between the chaco and Amazonia in Bolivia. The names Chiquitania and Velasco forest have been used locally in Bolivia to refer to this vegetation, which extends from the Tucuvaca Valley and Serrania de Chiquitos in easternmost Santa Cruz Department interruptedly westward to the base of the Andes and along much of the lower Andean slopes of the southern half of Bolivia.This region of closed-canopy dry forest is physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, with tall broadleaved completely deciduous (caducifolious) trees. Although it has been locally regarded as merely representing the transition between the chaco and Amazonia, it is a floristically and physiognomically distinctive unit that should be accorded equivalent conservation importance to the other major dry-forest vegetation types (Gentry 1994).The chaco is adjoined to the north by two large and phytogeographically distinctive areas of dry forest, the cerrado and caatinga, which cover a small portion of easternmost Bolivia and most of the Brazilian Shield area of central and north-eastern Brazil. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"cerrado† region consists of wooded savanna with characteristically gnarled sclerophyllous-leaved trees with thick twisted branches and thick bark, widely enough separated to allow a ground cover of grass intermixed with a rich assortment of woody-rooted (xylopodial) subshrubs.The cerrado also includes areas where the trees form a nearly closed canopy (â€Å"cerradao†), and large open areas of grasses and subshrubs with no trees at all (â€Å"campo limpio† and â€Å"campo rupestre†). Although the cerrado is appropriately considered a kind of dry forest, some cerrado regions actually receive more rainfall than do adjacent fores t regions; excess aluminium in the soil may be as important as the climate in determining its distribution. The even drier forest of the caatinga of north-eastern Brazil extends from an appropriately subtropical 17 °S latitude farther north to a surprisingly equatorial 3 °S.Why this region should have such low rainfall remains poorly understood. Another climatic peculiarity is the irregularity of its rainfall, not only with low annual precipitation, but also with frequent years when the rains fail almost completely. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"caatinga† – relatively low, dense, small-leaved and completely deciduous in the dry season – is physiognomically similar to that of the chaco. The final major South American dry-forest area is the coastal forest of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador.Even more anomalous in its geographical setting than the caatinga, this dry-forest region is positioned almost on the Equator. The occurrence of dry fores t so near the Equator is due to the offshore Humboldt Current. While similar cold-water currents occur along mid-latitude western coasts of other continents, the Humboldt Current is perhaps the strongest of these and is the only cold current reaching so near the Equator. The dry forest of coastal Peru and adjacent Ecuador is (or at least was, see below) physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, tall with a closed canopy of broadleaved completely deciduous trees.There also are a number of scattered smaller patches of tropical dry forest and/or savanna in various interAndean valleys, around Tarapoto, Peru, the Trinidad region of Bolivia, Brazil's Roraima area, the Surinam/Brazil border region, on Marajo Island, and in the pantanal region of the upper Paraguay River. Grasslands and deserts Grasslands and deserts occupy smaller areas of the neotropics than they do in Africa or most higher latitude continents. The main grassland region of the neotropics is the pampas r egion between about 39 °S and 28 °S and encompassing most of Uruguay as well as adjacent eastern Argentina and southernmost Brazil.The other major grassland area is the llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela. Smaller predominantly grassland regions occur in north-eastern Bolivia (Llanos de Mojos) and the south-eastern Guayana region (Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna). There are also areas with few or no trees and dominated by grasses in the cerrado and pantanal regions of Brazil, and scattered outliers associated with local edaphic peculiarities elsewhere. None of the major grassland regions has many endemic species, in contrast to the campos rupestres of the Brazilian Shield and the Guayana area whitesand savannas, which have many endemics.This contrast is especially marked in southern Venezuela where some savanna patches have clay soils and a llanos-type flora of widespread species, whereas others have sandy soils and a flora of Amazonian affinities with many endemic specie s (Huber 1982). The desert regions of Latin America are confined to northern Mexico, the monte (Morello 1958; Orians and Solbrig 1977) and Patagonian steppes of Argentina, and the narrow Pacific coastal strip of northern Chile and Peru. The 3500-km long South American coastal desert is one of the most arid in the world – most of it is largely devoid of vegetation.This region is saved from conservational obscurity, however, by the occurrence of islandlike patches of mostly herbaceous vegetation in places where steep coastal slopes are regularly bathed in winter fog. Although these â€Å"lomas† formations are individually not very rich in species (mostly fewer than 100 spp. ), they have a very high degree of endemism due to their insular nature. The overall lomas flora includes nearly 1000 species, mostly annuals or geophytes. Diversity and endemism in the lomas formations generally increase southward, where cacti and other succulents are also increasingly represented (M uller 1985; Rundel  et al. 991). Montane vegetation The main montane-forest area of the neotropics is associated with the Andes. A major but more interrupted montane-forest strip is associated with the mountainous backbone of Central America. Venezuela's Cordillera de la Costa phytogeographically is essentially an Andean extension, although geologically distinct from the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The tepui summits of the Guayana Highlands, though small in area, constitute a highly distinctive and phytogeographically fascinating montane environment.The Serra do Mar along Brazil's south-eastern coast is mostly low elevation but has a few peaks reaching above treeline with a depauperate paramo-like vegetation. The Andes may be conveniently recognized in three segments: northern – Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador; central-Peru and Bolivia; and southern-Chile and Argentina. In general the northern Andes are wetter, the central and southern regions drier. The main biogeographic discontinuity in the Andean forests is associated with the HuancabambaDepression in northern Peru, where the extensive system of dry interAndean valleys of the Maranon River and its tributaries entirely bisects the Eastern Cordillera and is associated with a topographically complex region having unusually high local endemism. Treeline in the tropical Andes occurs around 3500 m, depending on latitude and local factors. Above treeline, the wet grass-dominated vegetation of the Venezuelan, Colombian and northern Ecuadorian Andes is termed â€Å"paramo†; this drier vegetation, occurring from Peru to Argentina and Chile, is the â€Å"puna†.Colombian and Venezuelan paramos are characterized by  Espeletia  (Compositae) with its typical pachycaul-rosette growth form. The vegetation above treeline of most of Ecuador and northernmost Peru, locally called â€Å"jalca† in Peru, is ecologically as well as geographically intermediate; although generally cal led paramo in Ecuador, this region lacks the definitive  Espeletia  aspect of the typical northern paramos. While individual high-Andean plant communities are not very rich in species, many different communities can occur in close proximity in broken montane terrain.Thus the several high-Andean sites for which Florulas are available (Cleef 1981; Smith 1988; Galeano 1990; Ruthsatz 1977) have between 500-800 species, approaching the size of some lowland tropical Florulas. The moist Andean slopes generally show a distinctive floristic zonation, with woody plant diversity decreasing linearly with altitude from c. 1500 m to treeline. Below 1500 m Andean forests are generally similar both in floristic composition and diversity to equivalent samples of lowland forest. There are also structural changes at different elevations.For example hemi-epiphytic climbers show a strong peak in abundance between 1500-2400 m, epiphytes are usually more numerous in middleelevation cloud forests, and the stem density of woody plants is usually greater at higher elevations (Gentry 1992a). While the northern Andes have cloud forest on both western and eastern slopes, increasing aridity south from the Equator limits cloud forest to an ever narrower band on the Pacific slope. South of 7 °S latitude, forest on the western slopes of the Andes is restricted to isolated protected pockets, and the predominant slope vegetation becomes chaparral, thorn scrub and desert.One of the most striking features of the Andes phytogeographically is the high level of floristic endemism. In part this is associated with the discontinuity of high-altitude vegetation types, which are strongly fragmented into habitat islands. In addition to microgeographic allopatric speciation related to habitat fragmentation, it seems likely that unusually dynamic speciation, perhaps associated with genetic drift in small founder populations, may be a prevalent evolutionary theme in Andean cloud forests (Gentry and Dod son 1987; Gentry 1989).The combination of high local endemism (Gentry 1986a, 1993a; Luteyn 1989; Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991) with major deforestation makes the Andes one of South America's conservationally most critical regions. As with the dry forests, the Andean forests have recently begun to receive greater conservation attention (Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991; Young and Valencia 1992). Estimates of deforestation for the northern Andes as a whole are generally over 90%.Some areas are even more critical – perhaps less than 5% of Colombia's high-altitude montane forests remain (Hernandez-C. 1990) and only c. 4% of the original forest persists on the western Andean slopes of Ecuador (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Most of the northern Peruvian Andes are similarly deforested (cf. Dillon 1994). Although relatively extensive forests still remain on the Amazonfacing slopes of Peru and Bolivia, much of this area is being actively deforested, in large part to grow  "coca† (Erythroxylum coca) and opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). FloraFrom a conservation perspective, the neotropical region merits very special attention. Just as South America is sometimes called the â€Å"bird continent†, the neotropics might well be termed the â€Å"plant continent† in deference to their uniquely rich botanical diversity (Table 50). If current estimates are accurate, the neotropical region contains 90,000-100,000 plant species, twice to nearly three times as many as in either tropical Africa or tropical Australasia (cf. Prance 1994). The last great places for plant collecting are in the northern half of South America (J.Wurdack 1995, pers. comm. ), which is two to four times less documented by herbarium specimens than elsewhere in the tropics (cf. Campbell 1989). Some of the main relatively unexplored areas (according to Wurdack) are, in Brazil: Serra de Tumucumaque (Tumuc-Humac Mountains), along the border with Surinam and French Guiana; sl opes, especially the eastern slopes, of Pico da Neblina; in north-western Mato Grosso State, along the Linea Telegrafica; in Venezuela: slopes and talus forests of the tepuis; aramos west of Pinango (north of Merida); eastern slopes to Paramo de Tama (State of Merida, near border with Colombia); in Colombia: Paramo de Frontino (west of Medellin); Cuatrecasas' headwater localities of collection in western Colombia, particularly in the Department of Valle del Cauca (cf. Cuatrecasas 1958); upper elevations of the Serrania de La Macarena (Department of Meta); in Ecuador: Cordillera de Los Llanganates (which is east of Ambato) (cf.Kennerley and Bromley 1971); Cordillera de Cutucu (Province of Morona-Santiago); Cordillera del Condor, along the border with Peru; in Peru: elevations above 700 m of the Cerros Campanquiz, which are mostly in the Department of Amazonas; the eastern cordillera in the Department of Amazonas, Province of Chachapoyas (e. g. the Cerro de las Siete Lagunas east of C erro Campanario); portions of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba (which is north-west of Cusco), including the northern Cutivireni region (Villa-Lobos 1995); and in Bolivia: the easternmost Andes and granitic outliers in the Department of Santa Cruz.Floristic diversity is very asymmetrically distributed in South America (cf. Table 51). If the nine phytogeographic regions recognized by Gentry (1982a) for the neotropics are taken as a basis, Central America with Mexico (Mesoamerica) and Amazonia are the richest in species, with each of these two regions having about a quarter of the neotropical total. At the opposite extreme, the Antilles have an estimated 9% of the total neotropical flora and the Caribbean coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela has only 8%.The minuscule area of the Guayana Highlands (above 1500 m) accounts for only c. 2. 5% of the neotropical flora, but has one of the highest rates of endemism (65%) in the region (Berry, Huber and Holst 1995). The three main tropical Sou th American dry areas together include a relatively low 11% of the neotropical species total. Intermediate levels of regional plant species richness are found in the Northern Andean and Southern Andean regions and the Mata Atlantica area of Brazil, which each have between 16-18% of the tropical flora of the neotropical region.Regional endemism is greatest in Amazonia including lowland Guayana (76%), but almost as great in coastal Brazil (73%) and the chacocerradocaatinga dry areas (73%). In contrast, those two Andean subregions, Central America, and the Antilles have endemism levels of 54-60%, and the northern Colombia/Venezuela region only 24%. Farther south in the Southern Cone of South America, the monte of Argentina is estimated to include 700 species with 5% endemism, and Patagonia 1200 species with 30% endemism.Chile as a whole has 5215 species (Marticorena and Quezada 1985; Marticorena 1990), with 1800-2400 in the Mediterranean-climate area of central Chile where endemism is high, perhaps greater than for any of the equivalent tropical regions. The reasons for the unique floristic diversity of the neotropics as compared to Africa or tropical Australasia continue to be hotly debated. A popular theory is allopatric multiplication of species in habitat-island forest refugia during Pleistocene glacial advances (Haffer 1969; Prance 1973, 1982). Africa, which is higher and drier, would have had fewer refugia and more extinction.Tropical Asia was less affected, being buffered by the nearby ocean due to the island status of its components and by its proximity to a rain source from the Pacific (the world's largest ocean). Other theories, not necessarily mutually exclusive (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982), focus on explosive speciation in the more extensive cloud-forest area of the neotropics (Gentry 1982a, 1989; Gentry and Dodson 1987); â€Å"Endlerian† speciation associated with habitat specialization in the uniquely complicated habitat mosaic of north-wes tern and north-central Amazonia (Gentry 1986a, 1989; Gentry and Ortiz-S. 993); speciation associated with riverine barriers to gene flow in the largest river system of the world (Capparella 1988; Ducke and Black 1953); or biogeographical phenomena associated with the Great American Interchange and stemming from the direct juxtaposition of Laurasian and Gondwanan elements via the Isthmus of Panama (Gentry 1982a; Marshall  et al. 1979). Social and environmental values, and economic importance The indigenous groups (nations) of South America (Gray 1987) are varyingly diverse peoples who often partly depend directly on the natural environment for their biological and cultural well or survival.Their approximate presence is shown inTable 52. As the site of one of the Vavilovian centres of domestication, South America has played an important role in providing plants useful to people. The Andean centre of domestication rivals the Indo-Malayan and Mediterranean areas as the region that has produced the most important crop plants. Tobacco, potatoes, grain amaranths, quinoa, peanuts, lima beans, kidney beans, tomatoes and perhaps sweet potatoes and pineapples all derive from the Peruvian Andes and immediately adjacent egions (Anderson 1952). Based on land-race diversity, western Amazonia was the centre of domestication of a series of less well-known but increasingly important crops, including â€Å"pejibaye† or peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), â€Å"biriba† or â€Å"anona† (Rollinia mucosa), â€Å"abiu† or â€Å"caimito† (Pouteria caimito), â€Å"sapota† (Quararibea cordata), â€Å"araza† (Eugenia stipitata), â€Å"uvilla† (Pourouma cecropiifolia) and â€Å"cubiu† or â€Å"cocona† (Solanum sessiliflorum) (Clement 1989).Of the 86 major crops and their more than 100 species included in a summary of crop plant evolution (Simmonds 1976), 24 crops are neotropical in origin either wholly (19) or partly (5). Also, a host of South American forest plants are used locally but have not reached world commerce. Amazonia is especially rich in wild fruits (e. g. Duke and Vasquez 1994). For example around Iquitos, Peru, 139 species of forest-harvested fruits are regularly consumed, 57 of them important enough to be sold in the local produce market (Vasquez and Gentry 1989).There are a multitude of other uses for neotropical plants. Gentry (1992b) notes that 38% of the Bignoniaceae species of north-western South America have specific ethnobotanical uses and suggests that this could be extrapolated to 10,000 species with uses in this part of the world alone. Many studies have shown that the direct economic value of such products can be very high (e. g. Peters, Gentry and Mendelsohn 1989; Balick and Mendelsohn 1992).In a single hectare of speciesrich tropical forest near Iquitos, 454 of the 858 trees and lianas of dbh 10 cm or more have actual or potential uses (Gentry 1986c), with the hectare of f orest potentially producing US$650 worth of fruit and US$50 worth of rubber per year. If the 93 m? of sellable timber worth US$1000 is included, the net present value of the hectare of forest is US$9000, far more than the net present value of managed plantations or cattle-ranching.Additionally, the major role of forested areas in controlling erosion, recycling rainfall and as a carbon sink are now well known. As the territory with the largest tropical forest remaining in the world, South America plays a major role in providing such regional and planetary environmental services. Return to Top Loss, threats and conservation Although the neotropical region has the most forest, it is also losing more forest each year than any other area of tropical forest (Myers 1982; Reid 1992).In western Ecuador only 4% of the original forest cover remains (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Much attention has focused on Brazil, which includes 48% of the South American area. Perhaps the most definitive satellit e analysis of deforestation in Amazonia to date (Skole and Tucker 1993) indicates that as of 1988 only c. 10% of Brazilian Amazonia had been deforested, but if allowance is made for a 1-km edge effect, fully 20% of Brazilian Amazonia had been impacted. Deforestation in Rondonia alone has been c. 4000 km? per year, reaching almost 40,000 km? r 15% of the state by 1989 (Malingreau and Tucker 1988; Fearnside 1991). In coastal Brazil estimates of surviving forest range from 2% (IUCN and WWF 1982) to 12% (Brown and Brown 1992). Burgeoning populations are the biggest factor in the ongoing losses, although political and economic instability in some areas, and short-sighted â€Å"development† programmes in other areas, also play significant roles. In most of the neotropics, unlike much of the Old World, commercial lumbering operations have played a relatively small role so far.Conservational awareness throughout the region has increased dramatically in the past few years. Not only ar e increasing numbers of National Parks and similar conservation units being set aside, but there is also rapidly growing interest in the possibility of sustainable use of tropical forests as a conservation strategy. Unfortunately many destructive and unsustainable uses of forest can masquerade behind the banner of sustainable use. Making this promising new concept fulfil its potential remains a major challenge.Similarly the growing appreciation of the potential value of biodiversity has been accompanied by too much political preoccupation and posturing about sovereignty over potential genetic resources. Despite such problems, it is clear that the diversity of rain-forest plant life is intrinsically valuable. South America, botanically the richest continent, is also the greatest repository of potentially useful plants. Conservation of South America's plant diversity is clearly a world conservational priority.